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References & Figures- Sugars Belly Fat & Heart Disease
References are organised by chapter and numbered in Vancouver style, making it easy to locate supporting material for any topic of interest.
Wherever possible, the DOI (Digital Object Identifier) is provided for direct access to the original source. Additional reading and related blog articles are listed under Bibliography below. This online format keeps the reading experience focused while maintaining full transparency for readers who wish to explore the underlying data and evidence in greater depth.
High resolution photos, movie clips and diagrams are organised by chapter and numbered within the book text, making it easy to locate supporting material for any topic of interest.
The Bibliography includes selected blog articles and educational pieces that expand on key topics from The VAT Trap, such as visceral fat reduction, metabolic health, glucose tracking, and lifestyle strategies for cardiovascular prevention. These articles are intended for general educational purposes and to support readers seeking a deeper understanding of the concepts introduced in the book.
Select chapter to view options
Intro
Figures
Fig 1. Flow chart: how to use the book series
References
1. Boden WE, O’Rourke RA, Teo KK, Hartigan PM, Maron DJ, Kostuk WJ, et al. Optimal Medical Therapy with or without PCI for Stable Coronary Disease. N Engl J Med [Internet]. 2007 Apr 12 [cited 2025 Dec 4];356(15):1503–16. Available from: https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa070829
2. Bruyne BD, Pijls NHJ, Kalesan B, Barbato E, Tonino PAL, Piroth Z, et al. Fractional Flow Reserve–Guided PCI versus Medical Therapy in Stable Coronary Disease. N Engl J Med [Internet]. 2012 Sept 13 [cited 2025 Dec 4];367(11):991–1001. Available from: https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1205361
3. Al-Lamee R, Thompson D, Dehbi HM, Sen S, Tang K, Davies J, et al. Percutaneous coronary intervention in stable angina (ORBITA): a double-blind, randomised controlled trial. The Lancet [Internet]. 2018 Jan 6 [cited 2025 Dec 4];391(10115):31–40. Available from: https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(17)32714-9/abstract
4. Maron DJ, Hochman JS, Reynolds HR, Bangalore S, O’Brien SM, Boden WE, et al. Initial Invasive or Conservative Strategy for Stable Coronary Disease. N Engl J Med [Internet]. 2020 Apr 9 [cited 2025 Dec 4];382(15):1395–407. Available from: https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1915922
5. A Randomized Trial of Therapies for Type 2 Diabetes and Coronary Artery Disease. N Engl J Med [Internet]. 2009 June 11 [cited 2025 Dec 4];360(24):2503–15. Available from: https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa0805796
6. Oikonomou EK, Marwan M, Desai MY, Mancio J, Alashi A, Centeno EH, et al. Non-invasive detection of coronary inflammation using computed tomography and prediction of residual cardiovascular risk (the CRISP CT study): a post-hoc analysis of prospective outcome data. The Lancet [Internet]. 2018 Sept 15 [cited 2025 Dec 3];392(10151):929–39. Available from: https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(18)31114-0/fulltext
Bibliography
Leatham E. Oct 2025 Cholesterol, LDL, and what we learnt from PCSK9 mutations in familial hypercholesterolaemia [online] [2025]. Available from:https://www.scvc.co.uk/metabolic-health/cholesterol-ldl-and-what-we-learnt-from-pcsk9-mutations-in-familial-hypercholesterolaemia/
Leatham E. Bradford Hill’s Criteria For Causation Applied To LDL Cholesterol And Coronary Heart Disease Archive.org [online]: London; 2025. Available from: https://archive.org/details/bradford-hills-criteria-for-causation-applied-to-ldl-cholesterol-and-coronary-heart-disease-ul
Leatham E. Bradford Hill’s Criteria For Causation Applied To LDL Cholesterol And Coronary Heart Disease Archive.org [online]: London; 2025. Available from: https://archive.org/details/bradford-hills-criteria-for-causation-applied-to-ldl-cholesterol-and-coronary-heart-disease-ul
Leatham E 2025 Short Unreviewed Paper: Cold Exposure, Brown Fat Activation, and Visceral Adiposity: A Scientific Review of Thermal Environment, Thermogenesis, and Metabolic Health
SukYin A. Catechol-O-Methyltransferase (COMT) gene and breast cancer. [online]. Human Genome Epidemiology Network, National Office of Public Health Genomics, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Atlanta GA; 2002 Jun [Accessed 8 September 2008]. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/genomics/hugenet/factsheets/FS_COMT.htm
Chapter 1
Figures
Fig 1. Flow chart: how to use the book series
Fig 2. CT angiogram showing a critical narrowing of the left anterior descending artery (LAD).
Fig 3. An invasive angiogram confirms a critical narrowing of the left anterior descending artery (LAD).
References
1.Oikonomou EK, Marwan M, Desai MY, Mancio J, Alashi A, Centeno EH, et al. Non-invasive detection of coronary inflammation using computed tomography and prediction of residual cardiovascular risk (the CRISP CT study): a post-hoc analysis of prospective outcome data. The Lancet [Internet]. 2018 Sept 15 [cited 2025 Dec 3];392(10151):929–39. Available from: https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(18)31114-0/fulltext
2.
3
4.
Bibliography
Leatham E. Oct 2025 Cholesterol, LDL, and what we learnt from PCSK9 mutations in familial hypercholesterolaemia [online] [2025]. Available from:https://www.scvc.co.uk/metabolic-health/cholesterol-ldl-and-what-we-learnt-from-pcsk9-mutations-in-familial-hypercholesterolaemia/
Leatham E. Bradford Hill’s Criteria For Causation Applied To LDL Cholesterol And Coronary Heart Disease Archive.org [online]: London; 2025. Available from: https://archive.org/details/bradford-hills-criteria-for-causation-applied-to-ldl-cholesterol-and-coronary-heart-disease-ul
Leatham E. Bradford Hill’s Criteria For Causation Applied To LDL Cholesterol And Coronary Heart Disease Archive.org [online]: London; 2025. Available from: https://archive.org/details/bradford-hills-criteria-for-causation-applied-to-ldl-cholesterol-and-coronary-heart-disease-ul
Leatham E 2025 Short Unreviewed Paper: Cold Exposure, Brown Fat Activation, and Visceral Adiposity: A Scientific Review of Thermal Environment, Thermogenesis, and Metabolic Health
SukYin A. Catechol-O-Methyltransferase (COMT) gene and breast cancer. [online]. Human Genome Epidemiology Network, National Office of Public Health Genomics, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Atlanta GA; 2002 Jun [Accessed 8 September 2008]. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/genomics/hugenet/factsheets/FS_COMT.htm
Chapter 2
Figures
Fig 1. Flow chart: how to use the book series
Fig 2. CT angiogram showing a critical narrowing of the left anterior descending artery (LAD).
Fig 3. An invasive angiogram confirms a critical narrowing of the left anterior descending artery (LAD).
References
1.Oikonomou EK, Marwan M, Desai MY, Mancio J, Alashi A, Centeno EH, et al. Non-invasive detection of coronary inflammation using computed tomography and prediction of residual cardiovascular risk (the CRISP CT study): a post-hoc analysis of prospective outcome data. The Lancet [Internet]. 2018 Sept 15 [cited 2025 Dec 3];392(10151):929–39. Available from: https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(18)31114-0/fulltext
2.
3
4.
Bibliography
Leatham E. Oct 2025 Cholesterol, LDL, and what we learnt from PCSK9 mutations in familial hypercholesterolaemia [online] [2025]. Available from:https://www.scvc.co.uk/metabolic-health/cholesterol-ldl-and-what-we-learnt-from-pcsk9-mutations-in-familial-hypercholesterolaemia/
Leatham E. Bradford Hill’s Criteria For Causation Applied To LDL Cholesterol And Coronary Heart Disease Archive.org [online]: London; 2025. Available from: https://archive.org/details/bradford-hills-criteria-for-causation-applied-to-ldl-cholesterol-and-coronary-heart-disease-ul
Leatham E. Bradford Hill’s Criteria For Causation Applied To LDL Cholesterol And Coronary Heart Disease Archive.org [online]: London; 2025. Available from: https://archive.org/details/bradford-hills-criteria-for-causation-applied-to-ldl-cholesterol-and-coronary-heart-disease-ul
Leatham E 2025 Short Unreviewed Paper: Cold Exposure, Brown Fat Activation, and Visceral Adiposity: A Scientific Review of Thermal Environment, Thermogenesis, and Metabolic Health
SukYin A. Catechol-O-Methyltransferase (COMT) gene and breast cancer. [online]. Human Genome Epidemiology Network, National Office of Public Health Genomics, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Atlanta GA; 2002 Jun [Accessed 8 September 2008]. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/genomics/hugenet/factsheets/FS_COMT.htm
Chapter 3
Figures
Fig 1. Flow chart: how to use the book series
Fig 2. CT angiogram showing a critical narrowing of the left anterior descending artery (LAD).
Fig 3. An invasive angiogram confirms a critical narrowing of the left anterior descending artery (LAD).
References
1.Oikonomou EK, Marwan M, Desai MY, Mancio J, Alashi A, Centeno EH, et al. Non-invasive detection of coronary inflammation using computed tomography and prediction of residual cardiovascular risk (the CRISP CT study): a post-hoc analysis of prospective outcome data. The Lancet [Internet]. 2018 Sept 15 [cited 2025 Dec 3];392(10151):929–39. Available from: https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(18)31114-0/fulltext
2.
3
4.
Bibliography
Leatham E. Oct 2025 Cholesterol, LDL, and what we learnt from PCSK9 mutations in familial hypercholesterolaemia [online] [2025]. Available from:https://www.scvc.co.uk/metabolic-health/cholesterol-ldl-and-what-we-learnt-from-pcsk9-mutations-in-familial-hypercholesterolaemia/
Leatham E. Bradford Hill’s Criteria For Causation Applied To LDL Cholesterol And Coronary Heart Disease Archive.org [online]: London; 2025. Available from: https://archive.org/details/bradford-hills-criteria-for-causation-applied-to-ldl-cholesterol-and-coronary-heart-disease-ul
Leatham E. Bradford Hill’s Criteria For Causation Applied To LDL Cholesterol And Coronary Heart Disease Archive.org [online]: London; 2025. Available from: https://archive.org/details/bradford-hills-criteria-for-causation-applied-to-ldl-cholesterol-and-coronary-heart-disease-ul
Leatham E 2025 Short Unreviewed Paper: Cold Exposure, Brown Fat Activation, and Visceral Adiposity: A Scientific Review of Thermal Environment, Thermogenesis, and Metabolic Health
SukYin A. Catechol-O-Methyltransferase (COMT) gene and breast cancer. [online]. Human Genome Epidemiology Network, National Office of Public Health Genomics, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Atlanta GA; 2002 Jun [Accessed 8 September 2008]. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/genomics/hugenet/factsheets/FS_COMT.htm
Chapter 4
Figures
Fig 1. Flow chart: how to use the book series
Fig 2. CT angiogram showing a critical narrowing of the left anterior descending artery (LAD).
Fig 3. An invasive angiogram confirms a critical narrowing of the left anterior descending artery (LAD).
References
1.Oikonomou EK, Marwan M, Desai MY, Mancio J, Alashi A, Centeno EH, et al. Non-invasive detection of coronary inflammation using computed tomography and prediction of residual cardiovascular risk (the CRISP CT study): a post-hoc analysis of prospective outcome data. The Lancet [Internet]. 2018 Sept 15 [cited 2025 Dec 3];392(10151):929–39. Available from: https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(18)31114-0/fulltext
2.
3
4.
Bibliography
Leatham E. Oct 2025 Cholesterol, LDL, and what we learnt from PCSK9 mutations in familial hypercholesterolaemia [online] [2025]. Available from:https://www.scvc.co.uk/metabolic-health/cholesterol-ldl-and-what-we-learnt-from-pcsk9-mutations-in-familial-hypercholesterolaemia/
Leatham E. Bradford Hill’s Criteria For Causation Applied To LDL Cholesterol And Coronary Heart Disease Archive.org [online]: London; 2025. Available from: https://archive.org/details/bradford-hills-criteria-for-causation-applied-to-ldl-cholesterol-and-coronary-heart-disease-ul
Leatham E. Bradford Hill’s Criteria For Causation Applied To LDL Cholesterol And Coronary Heart Disease Archive.org [online]: London; 2025. Available from: https://archive.org/details/bradford-hills-criteria-for-causation-applied-to-ldl-cholesterol-and-coronary-heart-disease-ul
Leatham E 2025 Short Unreviewed Paper: Cold Exposure, Brown Fat Activation, and Visceral Adiposity: A Scientific Review of Thermal Environment, Thermogenesis, and Metabolic Health
SukYin A. Catechol-O-Methyltransferase (COMT) gene and breast cancer. [online]. Human Genome Epidemiology Network, National Office of Public Health Genomics, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Atlanta GA; 2002 Jun [Accessed 8 September 2008]. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/genomics/hugenet/factsheets/FS_COMT.htm
Chapter 5
Figures
Fig 1. Flow chart: how to use the book series
Fig 2. CT angiogram showing a critical narrowing of the left anterior descending artery (LAD).
Fig 3. An invasive angiogram confirms a critical narrowing of the left anterior descending artery (LAD).
References
1.Oikonomou EK, Marwan M, Desai MY, Mancio J, Alashi A, Centeno EH, et al. Non-invasive detection of coronary inflammation using computed tomography and prediction of residual cardiovascular risk (the CRISP CT study): a post-hoc analysis of prospective outcome data. The Lancet [Internet]. 2018 Sept 15 [cited 2025 Dec 3];392(10151):929–39. Available from: https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(18)31114-0/fulltext
2.
3
4.
Bibliography
Leatham E. Oct 2025 Cholesterol, LDL, and what we learnt from PCSK9 mutations in familial hypercholesterolaemia [online] [2025]. Available from:https://www.scvc.co.uk/metabolic-health/cholesterol-ldl-and-what-we-learnt-from-pcsk9-mutations-in-familial-hypercholesterolaemia/
Leatham E. Bradford Hill’s Criteria For Causation Applied To LDL Cholesterol And Coronary Heart Disease Archive.org [online]: London; 2025. Available from: https://archive.org/details/bradford-hills-criteria-for-causation-applied-to-ldl-cholesterol-and-coronary-heart-disease-ul
Leatham E. Bradford Hill’s Criteria For Causation Applied To LDL Cholesterol And Coronary Heart Disease Archive.org [online]: London; 2025. Available from: https://archive.org/details/bradford-hills-criteria-for-causation-applied-to-ldl-cholesterol-and-coronary-heart-disease-ul
Leatham E 2025 Short Unreviewed Paper: Cold Exposure, Brown Fat Activation, and Visceral Adiposity: A Scientific Review of Thermal Environment, Thermogenesis, and Metabolic Health
SukYin A. Catechol-O-Methyltransferase (COMT) gene and breast cancer. [online]. Human Genome Epidemiology Network, National Office of Public Health Genomics, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Atlanta GA; 2002 Jun [Accessed 8 September 2008]. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/genomics/hugenet/factsheets/FS_COMT.htm
Chapter 6
1. Boden WE, O’Rourke RA, Teo KK, Hartigan PM, Maron DJ, Kostuk WJ, et al. Optimal Medical Therapy with or without PCI for Stable Coronary Disease. N Engl J Med [Internet]. 2007 Apr 12 [cited 2025 Dec 4];356(15):1503–16. Available from: https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa070829
2. Bruyne BD, Pijls NHJ, Kalesan B, Barbato E, Tonino PAL, Piroth Z, et al. Fractional Flow Reserve–Guided PCI versus Medical Therapy in Stable Coronary Disease. N Engl J Med [Internet]. 2012 Sept 13 [cited 2025 Dec 4];367(11):991–1001. Available from: https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1205361
3. Al-Lamee R, Thompson D, Dehbi HM, Sen S, Tang K, Davies J, et al. Percutaneous coronary intervention in stable angina (ORBITA): a double-blind, randomised controlled trial. The Lancet [Internet]. 2018 Jan 6 [cited 2025 Dec 4];391(10115):31–40. Available from: https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(17)32714-9/abstract
4. Maron DJ, Hochman JS, Reynolds HR, Bangalore S, O’Brien SM, Boden WE, et al. Initial Invasive or Conservative Strategy for Stable Coronary Disease. N Engl J Med [Internet]. 2020 Apr 9 [cited 2025 Dec 4];382(15):1395–407. Available from: https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1915922
5. A Randomized Trial of Therapies for Type 2 Diabetes and Coronary Artery Disease. N Engl J Med [Internet]. 2009 June 11 [cited 2025 Dec 4];360(24):2503–15. Available from: https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa0805796
6. Oikonomou EK, Marwan M, Desai MY, Mancio J, Alashi A, Centeno EH, et al. Non-invasive detection of coronary inflammation using computed tomography and prediction of residual cardiovascular risk (the CRISP CT study): a post-hoc analysis of prospective outcome data. The Lancet [Internet]. 2018 Sept 15 [cited 2025 Dec 3];392(10151):929–39. Available from: https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(18)31114-0/fulltext
7. Bogers RP, Bemelmans WJE, Hoogenveen RT, Boshuizen HC, Woodward M, Knekt P, et al. Association of Overweight With Increased Risk of Coronary Heart Disease Partly Independent of Blood Pressure and Cholesterol Levels: A Meta-analysis of 21 Cohort Studies Including More Than 300 000 Persons. Arch Intern Med [Internet]. 2007 Sept 10 [cited 2025 Dec 4];167(16):1720–8. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.167.16.1720
8. Kluger AY, Tecson KM, Barbin CM, Lee AY, Lerma EV, Rosol ZP, et al. Cardiorenal Outcomes in the CANVAS, DECLARE-TIMI 58, and EMPA-REG OUTCOME Trials: A Systematic Review. Rev Cardiovasc Med. 2018 June 30;19(2):41–9.
9. Zinman B, Wanner C, Lachin JM, Fitchett D, Bluhmki E, Hantel S, et al. Empagliflozin, Cardiovascular Outcomes, and Mortality in Type 2 Diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2015 Nov 26;373(22):2117–28.
10. Marso SP, Daniels GH, Brown-Frandsen K, Kristensen P, Mann JFE, Nauck MA, et al. Liraglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Type 2 Diabetes. N Engl J Med [Internet]. 2016 July 28 [cited 2025 Dec 4];375(4):311–22. Available from: https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1603827
11. Deanfield J, Lincoff AM, Kahn SE, Emerson SS, Lingvay I, Scirica BM, et al. Semaglutide and cardiovascular outcomes by baseline and changes in adiposity measurements: a prespecified analysis of the SELECT trial. The Lancet [Internet]. 2025 Nov 8 [cited 2025 Dec 4];406(10516):2257–68. Available from: https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(25)01375-3/fulltext
12. Lincoff AM, Brown-Frandsen K, Colhoun HM, Deanfield J, Emerson SS, Esbjerg S, et al. Semaglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Obesity without Diabetes. N Engl J Med [Internet]. 2023 Dec 13 [cited 2025 Dec 4];389(24):2221–32. Available from: https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa2307563
13. Zannad F, Ferreira JP, Pocock SJ, Anker SD, Butler J, Filippatos G, et al. SGLT2 inhibitors in patients with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction: a meta-analysis of the EMPEROR-Reduced and DAPA-HF trials. Lancet Lond Engl. 2020 Sept 19;396(10254):819–29.
14. Adabag AS, Luepker RV, Roger VL, Gersh BJ. Sudden cardiac death: epidemiology and risk factors. Nat Rev Cardiol [Internet]. 2010 Apr [cited 2025 Dec 4];7(4):216–25. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5014372/
15. Corrado D, Thiene G, Pennelli N. Sudden death as the first manifestation of coronary artery disease in young people (less than or equal to 35 years). Eur Heart J. 1988 Dec;9 Suppl N:139–44.
16. Reinier K, Thomas E, Andrusiek DL, Aufderheide TP, Brooks SC, Callaway CW, et al. Socioeconomic status and incidence of sudden cardiac arrest. CMAJ Can Med Assoc J [Internet]. 2011 Oct 18 [cited 2025 Dec 4];183(15):1705–12. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3193117/
17. Myerburg RJ, Junttila MJ. Sudden cardiac death caused by coronary heart disease. Circulation. 2012 Feb 28;125(8):1043–52.
18. Lloyd-Jones D, Adams R, Carnethon M, De Simone G, Ferguson TB, Flegal K, et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics--2009 update: a report from the American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. Circulation. 2009 Jan 27;119(3):e21-181.
Chapter 7
Figures
Fig 1. Flow chart: how to use the book series
Fig 2. CT angiogram showing a critical narrowing of the left anterior descending artery (LAD).
Fig 3. An invasive angiogram confirms a critical narrowing of the left anterior descending artery (LAD).
References
Bibliography
Leatham E. Oct 2025 Cholesterol, LDL, and what we learnt from PCSK9 mutations in familial hypercholesterolaemia [online] [2025]. Available from:https://www.scvc.co.uk/metabolic-health/cholesterol-ldl-and-what-we-learnt-from-pcsk9-mutations-in-familial-hypercholesterolaemia/
Leatham E. Bradford Hill’s Criteria For Causation Applied To LDL Cholesterol And Coronary Heart Disease Archive.org [online]: London; 2025. Available from: https://archive.org/details/bradford-hills-criteria-for-causation-applied-to-ldl-cholesterol-and-coronary-heart-disease-ul
Leatham E. Bradford Hill’s Criteria For Causation Applied To LDL Cholesterol And Coronary Heart Disease Archive.org [online]: London; 2025. Available from: https://archive.org/details/bradford-hills-criteria-for-causation-applied-to-ldl-cholesterol-and-coronary-heart-disease-ul
Leatham E 2025 Short Unreviewed Paper: Cold Exposure, Brown Fat Activation, and Visceral Adiposity: A Scientific Review of Thermal Environment, Thermogenesis, and Metabolic Health
SukYin A. Catechol-O-Methyltransferase (COMT) gene and breast cancer. [online]. Human Genome Epidemiology Network, National Office of Public Health Genomics, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Atlanta GA; 2002 Jun [Accessed 8 September 2008]. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/genomics/hugenet/factsheets/FS_COMT.htm